Research on tariffs’ alternative policy of strategic mineral resources from the perspective of external cost internalization taking rare earth mine as an example
Received date: 2017-08-25
Request revised date: 2018-02-09
Online published: 2018-03-10
Copyright
The “China-raw materials” and “China-rare earths” cases urge the Chinese government to adopt resource and environmental policies that are WTO-consistent and effective, promoting the internalization of external costs in the process of exploiting metal minerals. However, the existing research only considered the intergenerational external cost when evaluating the alternative policies for tariffs, and the related parameters were given exogenously when employ tax transfer model to evaluate the substitution effect of resource tax on tariffs. As a kind of strategic mineral resource, rare earth minerals are selected as the research object. The theoretical tax range of the external costs (including intergenerational cost and environmental cost) of rare earth from the perspective of whole life cycle is estimated to be 28.5%-48.0%. Further, the transformed Lerner and SMR model are employed to estimate the market power of the upstream and downstream enterprises for three different periods. The market powers of the upstream enterprises in the three periods are 1.0, 0.8 and 1.2, respectively, and those of the downstream enterprises are 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4, respectively. Through internalizing the external costs and market power into the tax transfer model, we find that the transmission mechanism and equivalent substitution of intergenerational and environmental external costs, and environmental protection tax rate are related to the market power of rare earth export enterprises, supply elasticity of the upstream enterprises and demand elasticity of the foreign enterprises. This paper provides theoretical basis for the government to formulate more compliance resources policy and environmental policy. Moreover, it sets up an analytical paradigm for the other strategic mineral resources.
SONG Yi , HUANG Jianbai , ZHONG Meirui , ZHANG Yijun . Research on tariffs’ alternative policy of strategic mineral resources from the perspective of external cost internalization taking rare earth mine as an example[J]. Resources Science, 2018 , 40(3) : 611 -622 . DOI: 10.18402/resci.2018.03.15
Table 1 The indicator system of environmental external cost of rare earth exploitation表1 稀土开发的环境外部性成本核算指标体系 |
| 生命周期 | 环节 | 环境外部性成本指标 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 稀土开采 | 混合型稀土矿 | 露采-磨浮 | 工业废水量、化学需氧量、工业固体废物(尾矿)、工业固体废物(其它) |
| 氟碳铈矿 | 坑采-磨浮 | 工业固体废物(尾矿) | |
| 离子型稀土矿 | 原地浸出 | 工业废水量、化学需氧量、氨氮、森林植被恢复费 | |
| 池(堆)浸 | 工业废水量、化学需氧量、氨氮、森林植被恢复费、土壤污染治理费、水土保持费 | ||
| 稀土冶炼 | 混合型 稀土精矿 | 硫酸焙烧-萃取转型-萃取分离 | 工业废水量、化学需氧量、氨氮、氟化物(液)烟尘、二氧化硫、氟化物(气)、工业固体废物(冶炼废渣)、HW14危险废物(新化学品废物) |
| 硫酸焙烧-碳铵沉淀或盐酸优溶 | 工业废水量、化学需氧量、氨氮、氟化物(液)烟尘、二氧化硫、氟化物(气)、工业固体废物(冶炼废渣)、HW14危险废物(新化学品废物) | ||
| 碱分解-盐酸优溶-萃取分离 | 工业废水量、氨氮、氟化物(液)、总磷、工业固体废物(冶炼废渣)、HW14危险废物(新化学品废物) | ||
| 氟碳铈精矿 | 氧化焙烧-盐酸浸出-萃取分离 | 工业废水量、氨氮、氟化物(液)、总磷、烟尘二氧化硫、工业固体废物(冶炼废渣)、HW14危险废物(新化学品废物) | |
| 南方离子稀土精 | 盐酸溶解-P507/环烷酸(非氨皂)萃取分离 | 工业废水量、化学需氧量、铅、总磷、工业固体废物(冶炼废渣) | |
| 盐酸溶解-P507/环烷酸(氨皂)萃取分离 | 工业废水量、化学需氧量、氨氮、铅、工业固体废物(冶炼废渣) | ||
| 稀土氧化物(合金制造) | 熔盐电解 | 烟尘、氟化物(气)、工业固体废物(冶炼废渣) | |
| 稀土废弃物回收 | 稀土金属化物 | 碱培烧法、浓硫酸分解法等 | 工业废水量、二氧化硫、氟化物(气) |
注:稀土金属压延加工制造属于高科技、多工序加工,目前数据不可获得,因此没有进行核算。 |
Table 2 Environmental external cost of rare earth and proportion of its prices from 2001 to 2016表2 2001—2016年稀土开发的环境外部性成本及占稀土售价比 |
| 年份 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 环境外部性成本/亿元 | 46.99 | 56.76 | 59.21 | 61.04 | 65.35 | 71.01 | 61.54 | 61.36 | 63.32 | |
| 稀土单价/元/kg | 188 | 207 | 225 | 250 | 275 | 280 | 215 | 250 | 280 | |
| 环境成本占比/% | 0.25 | 0.28 | 0.27 | 0.25 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.24 | 0.20 | 0.17 | |
| 年份 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 均值 | ||
| 环境外部性成本/亿元 | 46.01 | 45.02 | 37.9 | 41.32 | 41.93 | 39.72 | 36.16 | 52.17 | ||
| 稀土单价/元/kg | 305 | 225 | 400 | 280 | 260 | 235 | 225 | 256 | ||
| 环境成本占比/% | 0.16 | 0.24 | 0.12 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.21 |
Table 3 The market power of upstream enterprises of Chinese rare earth from 2001 to 2016表3 2001—2016年中国稀土上游企业市场势力测算结果 |
| 阶段 | 年份 | 稀土上游企业市场势力 |
|---|---|---|
| 出口鼓励阶段 | 2001—2004 | 1.0 |
| 关税政策调整期 | 2005—2008 | 0.8 |
| 关税政策稳定期 (15%~20%关税) | 2009—2016 | 1.2 |
注:2015年关税政策取消,在不影响市场势力测算结果情况下,将2016年数据合并到关税政策稳定期中。 |
Table 4 The market power of downstream enterprises of Chinese rare earth from 2001 to 2016表4 2001—2016年中国稀土下游出口企业市场势力测算结果 |
| 阶段 | 年份 | 模型参数 | 估计值 | 标准差 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 出口鼓励阶段 | 2001—2004 | 下游出口企业市场势力() | 0.1* | 0.132 |
| 关税政策调整期 | 2005—2008 | 下游出口企业市场势力() | 0.2* | 0.127 |
| 关税政策稳定期(15%~20%关税) | 2009—2016 | 下游出口企业市场势力() | 0.4*** | 0.105 |
注:***、**、*分别表示在1%、5%、10%的显著性水平下显著。 |
Figure 1 The supply and demand price elasticity of rare earth from 2001 to 2016图1 2001—2016年稀土供需价格弹性 |
Figure 2 The rising ratio of rare earth’s export prices with 20% tariff levied under different supply elasticity()图2 不同供给弹性下征收20%关税导致稀土出口价格上升的比率() |
Table 5 Transfer table of external cost of China’s rare earth from 2001 to 2016()表5 2001—2016年中国稀土外部性成本传递表() |
| 年份 | 2001 | 2003 | 2005 | 2007 | 2009 | 2011 | 2013 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 供给弹性 | 0.01 | 0.50 | 2.53 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.70 | 0.17 | 0.10 |
| 上游 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
| 下游 | ||||||||
| 1 | 0.03 | |||||||
| 1 | 1.03 | |||||||
| 0.8 | 5.37 | |||||||
| 0.8 | 0.47 | |||||||
| 1.2 | -0.25 | |||||||
| 1.2 | -2.15 | |||||||
| 1.2 | -0.67 | |||||||
| 1.2 | -0.41 |
Figure 3 The transfer elasticity of external cost of rare earth图3 稀土外部性成本传递弹性 |
Table 6 The equivalent replacement tax between external cost and 20% tariff of rare earth表6 稀土资源外部性成本对20%关税等效替代税率 |
| 外部性成本对关税等效替代税率(=2) | 外部性成本对关税等效替代税率(=0.5) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 供给弹性 | 上游 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
| 下游 | |||||||
| 0.2 | 0.00 | 31.00 | 33.48 | 35.51 | 31.00 | 33.48 | 35.51 |
| 0.2 | 0.10 | 20.32 | 21.87 | 23.13 | 5.47 | 5.77 | 6.01 |
| 0.2 | 0.20 | 9.46 | 10.15 | 10.70 | - | - | - |
| 0.5 | 0.00 | 21.12 | 21.93 | 22.59 | 21.12 | 21.93 | 22.59 |
| 0.5 | 0.10 | 13.67 | 14.17 | 14.57 | 3.42 | 3.51 | 3.58 |
| 0.5 | 0.20 | 6.28 | 6.50 | 6.67 | - | - | - |
| 1.5 | 0.00 | 14.96 | 14.63 | 14.37 | 14.96 | 14.63 | 14.37 |
| 1.5 | 0.10 | 9.30 | 9.11 | 8.96 | 1.91 | 1.89 | 1.87 |
| 1.5 | 0.20 | 4.11 | 4.04 | 3.98 | - | - | - |
注:税率为负值时不符合实际情况,在此用”-”表示。 |
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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