Resilience planning has emerged in recent years as an alternative to the sustainable development paradigm to provide new perspectives on community development and socio-ecological adjustments to a rapidly changing world. Tourism scholars have been somewhat slow to adopt the recent conceptual ideas related to community resilience that have been published in other disciplinary areas, though this situation is also changing rapidly.While most resilience research focusses on major disasters and crises, new frameworks that encompass slow change variables provide a more comprehensive view on resilience. A model for tourism resilience considers the rate of change (transitioning from slow to fast), and the scale of tourism interest (scaling from that of the entrepreneur to those that are community-wide). The resulting 2*2 matrix presents four context with distinct resilience issues, methodologies and measurements, ranging from entrepreneurs managing daily maintenance needs, to community disaster readiness, response and recovery. The SCR model has been revised based on the field investigation and study of rural tourism in Taiwan. And the SCR model generalizes the Scale, Change and Resilience model to any context in which there is a hierarchy containing a system and at least one subsystem. The threshold dividing the system from the subsystem is a major shift in a baseline variable that is used to distinguish between the system and the subsystem. Furthermore, the SCR model gives formal names to each of the four generalized cells: Management Resilience & Sustainability, Resource Resilience & Sustainability, Planning Resilience & Sustainability, Governance Resilience & Sustainability.
Many empirical studies have focused on community reactions to tourism development but few on theoretical models underlying community reactions to tourism development,which makes it difficult to position the theoretical contribution of such researches. Here,we review nine popular theoretical models（Doxey’s Irritation Index,Bulter’s dynamic reaction matrix and tourist destination evolution,Dogan’s community reaction model,Ap and Crompton’s acceptance-retreat spectrum,Ap’s social exchange,community attachment and growth machine）and relevant empirical researches. This review provides empirical research with reference models and theoretical tools. Future research could be extended with special emphasis on differentiation and inner reasons of community reactions to tourism development in terms of different development phases of tourist destination evolution and different subgroups in the tourism community. Future research should complement more new variables such as affections,power and political trust to further improve the explanation power to community reactions to tourism development. According to the theory of social representation,further research should pay attention to the working of different subgroups’ social representations and their interpretation on community reactions to tourism development.
Geotourism resources are important material carriers of tourism attraction. It is of great significance to research geotourism resource value evolution in order to guide geopark development and provide a policy basis for geotourism resource comprehensive value release within a specific time. High-frequency words were extracted based on previous planning text and the Eigenvector and Betweenness Centralization were used as indicators to determine the geotourism resource value evolution of the Yellow River Stone Forest. From the evolution process we can see that the geotourism resource value can be divided into two stages：protection with development stage and comprehensive development stage. It is characterized by ‘geopark’ in the first stage. For example,‘landform,park,protection’ own the highest frequency,‘protection,nature,park,landform,tourism,scenic region’ are in dominant position,and ‘park,protection’ own the biggest impact. ‘Tourism’ is taken as the theme in the second stage. For example,‘tourism,scenic region,project,planning’ own the highest frequency,‘tourism,scenic region,development,planning,construction,service’ are in the dominant position,and ‘tourism’ owns the biggest impact. The direct reason why the value changed is because of economic interests. However,the government determines value orientation in China and this is the primary cause of the evolution. Our findings research suggests that the special national conditions of the Chinese institutional environment and institutional arrangements determine the geotourism development pathway and the application of the new institutional economics in the domestic tourism industry,and that this character is just an effective verification of the interaction of human-land relationships in geography.
Dark tourism sites,also known as difficult heritage,may arouse traumatic memories of a difficult past and result in varied psychology and behaviour of dark tourists. By focusing on the Memorial of the Victims of the Nanjing Massacre,China,which is one of the most iconic dark tourism sites worthy of academic attention,this study aims to segment dark tourists using the factors of intention to revisit and intention to recommend. The results yield three types of dark tourists：‘attitudinal loyal tourists’;‘tourists with low intention to recommend and revisit’; and ‘behavioural and attitudinal loyal tourists’. As dark tourism revolves around death,people might be affected heavily by assorted emotional and social-cultural factors. To identify the difference between these three kinds of dark tourists,a scale to measure dark tourism constraints and motivation has been developed. The exploratory factor analysis reveals that visitors to massacre sites might experience the following seven types of constraints：traumatic memory,emotions of fear and depression,taboos and cultural ideas,disinterest,interpersonal constraints,time/distance/information and competing attractions. The constraints revealed by this study may provide a foundation for research into the seven constraint dimensions that were revealed. Three main motives were also identified：obligation and education,social reasons,and curiosity and contemplating life and death. Among these three motivations,obligation and education emerged as the foremost motivations. The results demonstrate that dark tourists with higher motivation and lower constraints are more likely to revisit and recommend these sites. Given the importance of younger generations in the perpetuation of the memory of the traumatic past,the findings will help to broaden theory and provide suggestions for the management of massacre sites.
Group tours based on Internet communities has been a leading travel mode in China for the past ten years. In each tour,the tour organizers usually issue the tour plan in the community and call for participants,who play a similar role as the tour agent. This paper aims to discover the requirements and processes of tour organizers playing the agent role. As an exploratory study it uses qualitative methods and a case study. A group of independent travelers active in a virtual community related to Weihai Tourism was selected as a typical case after comparison with other cases. Adopting a participatory observation,we made contact in more than 10 independent travel online chat groups,covering 1463 traveler participants. As a participant of trips,conducted in-depth interviews with trip organizers and participants during and after travel; four organizers and 30 participants were interviewed. We compared the information searching behavior between the organizers and participants and discovered distinct differences in information searching channels,content,involvement and motives. These differences led to the organizer accumulating superior information,and this superiority in information was the basis of their agent role. Along with tour organization,the agent role was solidified by word-of-mouth. Since the agent role of the tour organizers was different from the traditional travel agency,which was not based on commercial contract but instead on information superiority,experience superiority and word-of-mouth,we define these people as quasi-agents. The definition of quasi-agent was used to analyze the characteristics of Internet community group tours. The characteristics of Internet community group tours are not in accordance with Cohen’s typology of tourists and is hard to sort into any typology;thus,a revised method of tourist typology is discussed.
How to increase crop yield,increase phosphorus use efficiency and reduce environmental pollution are major issues for China. Based on the principle of material flows we established the dynamic models for cropland P balance and then estimated cropland P balance and P use efficiency in China from 1961 to 2011. We explored the relationships among cropland P inputs,crop yield and cropland P use efficiency and then In addition compared cropland P balance for different crops in two different years. The results indicated that cropland P inputs and outputs increased 7.93 times and 2.89 times over the period,respectively,and the amount of P return back to croplands also increased about 2.65 times. The primary cropland P inputs changed from livestock and human excreta （accounting for 76.45% of the total cropland P inputs in 1961）to P-fertilizer （accounting for 70.54% of total cropland P input in 2011）. Cropland soil P use efficiency decreased from 0.6 in the 1960s to 0.3 at present. Cropland soil P balance had a positive relationship with cropland soil P inputs,while soil P use efficiency followed the opposite trend. Cropland soil P balance turned from ‘soil P deficits’ in 1960s to ‘soil P surplus’ after 1970,and croplands suffered serious soil P surplus since the 1990s. Up to 2011,the total cumulative cropland P accumulation amounted to 71.89 Mt P. These findings will help solve serious soil P accumulation and water eutrophication in rural areas of China,and improve crop production and P use efficiency.
Since China’s reform and opening up,the land examination and approval system has experienced several reforms as an important land management system in China. The relationship between land examination and approval system reform and cultivated land occupation by construction should be taken as a critical question and is worthy of further study. Here,we combine the evolution of land examination and approval system and selected provincial panel data from 1995 to 2013 for empirical analysis. The results show that there is a time lag between approved farmland occupation and annual cultivated land occupation by construction. Each additional 1hm2 of this year and last year approved farmland occupation has led to the actual cultivated land occupied area increasing by 0.25hm2 and 0.36hm2. In other words,when construction occupies 1 hm2 of cultivated land,40% of the land caused by the approved farmland occupation of other years,except the last two years,and illegal occupation. This result implies low land use efficiency after land examination and approval. When the proportion of land area under the approval of the State Council increases by 1%,cultivated land occupied areas increase by 2351hm2. This statistical analysis indicates that cultivated land occupation has been significantly decreased by concentrating land examination and approval power. In addition,there is a more significant impact in land approval power centralization reform from 1999 to 2005 than 2006 to 2013,when the central government inclined to delegate land approval power to lower-level governments. Thus,land examination and approval system reform tends to slow down cultivated land occupation by approval power centralization. In contrast,the decentralization of land examination and approval power has little impact on the rate of cultivated land occupation by construction.
Based on data from questionnaire surveys conducted in Tianjin,Guangdong and Chengdu,we explore farmer willingness to participate in rural housing land capitalization reform and influential factors in different capitalization models. The results show that factors including householder age,distance from the homestead to town and,per-capita housing involved in the rural residential land capitalization reform have a significant negative impact on farmer willingness to participate in rural housing land capitalization reform. At the same time,factors including householder educational level,family size to participate in social security,family main employment type,the off-farm income ratio of the family,number of homesteads owned by the family,economic development level,village characteristics,evaluation of government action,and expectations of capitalization reform have a significant positive impact on farmer willingness to participate in rural housing land capitalization reform. From differences between the three models,under the government-led model,farmer willingness is more affected by economic development level and evaluation of government actions;in the market-led model farmer willingness is more affected by family main employment type and number of homesteads owned by the family;and in the autonomous governance model farmer willingness is more affected by village characteristics and expectations of capitalization reform. According to regional resources and economic development levels,on the basis of respecting farmer willingness,government should select the appropriate rural housing land capitalization reform model,formulate reasonable income distribution rules and build farmer autonomous governance mechanisms. With these measures China can improve the performance of rural housing land capitalization reform and realize sustainable land-use.
This paper learnt from the basic idea of the balanced score card（BSC）,built a progressive catastrophe model of final management and maintenance of rural land consolidation projects（FMMRLCP）using the catastrophe progression method and achieved the performance of FMMRLCP. Based on the transaction costs theory of Williamson and the features of FMMRLCP,we also built an indicator system to measure transaction costs from three aspects：asset specificity,uncertainty and transaction frequency. A case study was used to compare the mode of village committee management and maintenance in Dengzhou, Henan,China and the mode of farmer joint household management and maintenance in Longzhou, Guangxi. We then discussed the performance differences between these two modes of FMMRLCP and their causes. The results showed that it was practical and feasible to evaluate the performance of FMMRLCP by using the basic idea of BSC and building a progressive catastrophe model of the performance of FMMRLCP using the catastrophe progression method. It provided a new method to solve the problem of multi-objective evaluation of a specific area. Comparing the total scores and scores at all levels of the performance of FMMRLCP of the two modes,the performance levels of FMMRLCP in these two study areas were both high,and the performance level of the mode of village committee management and maintenance in Dengzhou was higher than the mode of farmer joint household management and maintenance in Longzhou. The level of the performance of FMMRLCP depended on the level of transaction costs. Different modes of FMMRLCP had different asset specificity uncertainty and transaction frequency,which led to different transaction cost. Therefore,the performance was different. Negative correlation existed between the transaction costs and the performance of FMMRLCP. The mode of farmer joint household management and maintenance in Longzhou had lower transaction costs and higher performance while the mode of village committee management and maintenance in Dengzhou had higher transaction costs and lower performance. Therefore,in order to enhance the performance of FMMRLCP,the local government should take specific measures according to local conditions and decrease the extent of asset specificity,the extent of uncertainty and transaction frequency.
Because of rapid urbanization,China is facing a series of problems related to the disconnection between urban population growth and land expansion,and increasingly empty cities. Accurately identifying the spatio-temporal regularity of population urbanization and land urbanization is significant for reasonable planning and regional urbanization construction in China. Here,we took the ecological protection area of the Xiangjiang Valley as our focal area. Data included total population and non-agricultural population at a country scale according to the China Statistical Yearbooks Database and 30 m spatial resolution land use data from the Geographical Information Monitoring Cloud Platform. We then used the deviation coefficient index and GIS spatial autocorrelation model to assess the coordination degree and spatio-temporal cluster characteristic of population urbanization and land urbanization at a county level from 1990 to 2010. Results demonstrated that both the level of population urbanization and land urbanization increased over the study period across the Xiangjiang Valley. The level of population urbanization showed generally low growth rates and the growth rate was obviously lower than land urbanization. Different from population urbanization of the single center mode,the progress of land urbanization of the Xiangjiang Valley clearly demonstrated multinuclear group development structure with centers at Chang-zhu-tan Urban Agglomerations,Loudi,Shaoyang and Hengyang city. The growth rate of population urbanization and land urbanization was imbalanced,and these imbalanced areas are mainly located around the ‘four axes and one nuclear’ of Xiangjiang Valley with significant spatial clustering. The nuclear is Changsha-zhuzhou-xiangtan urban agglomeration and the four axes are the Beijing-Hong Kong-Macao axis,Lou-Shao-Yong axis,Tan-Lou-Shao axis and Heng-Yong axis. The results will help optimize land development activities and provide scientific decision-making when protecting the ecological environment of the Xiangjiang Valley.
In recent years,climate warming has become a global problem. As the underlying surface is the direct heat and water source of the atmosphere,it has a strong effect on forming and maintaining local climates. The study of ground temperature variation characteristics helps to understand climate change more clearly and researching the relationship between ground temperature and air temperature variation is of great significance to understanding the mechanism of climate change. Based on daily mean air temperature and ground temperature at a depth of 0 cm from 581 stations during 1961 to 2010,correlation analysis and Mann-Kendall nonparametric tests,spatial and temporal variation characteristics,regional differentiation characteristics and seasonal differentiation characteristics of ground temperature at the depth of 0 cm and air temperature were analyzed. The results indicate that ground temperature at a depth of 0 cm in China decreased and then increased with an abruption around 2000,after the abruption the rising trend of ground temperature tended to be more obvious. In most regions,ground temperature at 0 cm rose and the trend in the north was more obvious than the south. The rise in ground temperature at 0 cm in winter was more apparent than in summer. Correlation analysis showed that variation air temperature and ground temperature at 0 cm were similar,but before the1970s and after the 20th century,large differences were apparent. Compared to variation in air temperature,ground temperature at 0 cm from 1961 to 2010 tended to have a larger range and later abruption.
Under the background of global warming,the influence of climate change cannot be ignored during the process of the Belt and Road Initiative. Here,we characterized the spatial distribution of temperature and precipitation in the countries within the Silk Road Economic Belt and systematically analyzed spatiotemporal changes over the last 35 years. We used daily observations of meteorological stations provided by National Climatic Data Center in America and employed Kriging interpolation,linear trend methods,accumulative anomaly curve,Mann-Kendall tests,and spatial statistics at regional,country and pixel scales. The results show that the study area had a warming of 0.4℃/10a from 1980 to 2014. Most countries entered a warmer phase at the end of 20th century. Further,of the whole study area,30.1% has warmed and only about 0.03% has experienced a drop in temperature. Precipitation has tended to decrease,but only 0.19% of the study area has a significant downward trend in precipitation. There were also some areas with a significant upward trend in precipitation,such as Saudi Arabia,southwestern Iran,western Bulgaria,northwestern Ukraine,northern Pakistan,northern India,Nepal,Laos,western China and central Russia. South Asia has had increasing precipitation since 1991,but all other areas have undergone precipitation decline since 1999. Climate change will result in pros and cons for countries in the study area. This study provides a scientific base and conducive reference for the adaption of relevant countries to climate change during development of the Belt and Road Initiative.
Using main cycle data transformed from Molet continuous complex wavelet （CMOR） we explored Shangri-La’s five main climatic and environmental factors'（yearly temperature,precipitation,absolute huidity,relative humidity and frost days）quantitative prediction models,variation trends and multiple relations based on multiple Ordinary Least Squares （OLS）model,multiple Vector Auto-regression （VAR）modeling and Structural Equation Model（SEM）. The raw data was from the Shangri-La meteorological station in Yunnan,China from 1958 to 2012. We conclude that in next 50 years,Shangri-La’s temperature will increase at a rate of 0.44 ℃/10a,it will rise about 2℃ after 50 years,reaching about 9℃. Shangri-La’s precipitation shows periodic oscillation around its mean value,increasing at a rate of 14.7mm/10a. Shangri-La’s absolute humidity will increase at a rate of 0.06 mg/L/10a with obvious periodic oscillation. Shangri-La’s relative humidity will decrease at a rate of -0.96 %/10a with periodic oscillation. Shangri-La’s yearly frosty days will decrease at a rate of -2.8 d/10a with periodic oscillation Shangri-La’s temperature,precipitation and frost days were dependent on temperature and precipitation;temperature’s effect is greater than precipitation’s;and a continuous increase in temperature is the main reason for changes in all other climatic factors,except precipitation.
As included in the Twelfth Five-year Plan constraint control index,achievements in NOx emissions research are critical to formulating proper policies to reduce China’s air pollution. Based on provincial data for 2006 to 2013,we used ESDA to analysis temporal-spatial distribution characteristics of provincial industrial NOx emissions and then through LMDI model decomposition the main driving factors. We found that industrial NOx emissions first increase then decrease,2011 is the turning point. Only 5.6% of emissions reduction was completed by 2013 and the current situation remains severe emissions reduction. NOx emissions have a concentration distribution in space：high emissions of provincial agglomeration appeared mainly in Hebei,Shandong and Jiangsu,represented by the area of central China and with the passage of time has trended towards southern and western China. LMDI decomposition model results show that economic development is the main driving force of the increase in NOx emissions,meaning that NOx emissions in many provinces are increased with economic growth. At the same time,production technology progress and energy utilization efficiency is the main driving force of emission reduction,industrial structural adjustment of abatement effect began to highlight after 2011. The provinces can be divided into three classes,and depending on the characteristics of these three types of provinces we can put forward different corresponding suggestions to reduce emissions,such as improving production technology,the efficiency of energy utilization,economic encouragement and cutting the emissions share.
Low carbon agriculture is not only an important means to mitigation climate warming,but it is necessary for China’s transition from traditional to modern agriculture. Research on the impact of agricultural carbon emissions factors are significant to determine measures to agricultural emissions. Many studies have paid attention to agricultural emissions factors and the effect on agricultural emissions. However,they do not consider time differences and regional differences in agricultural emissions factors influencing agricultural emissions. Combining correspondence analysis and panel modeling,this paper analyzes stage characteristics of agricultural emissions factors affecting agricultural emissions over time. Regional differences in agricultural emissions factors from a spatial angle were also analyzed. The results show that there are two stages of agricultural carbon emissions dominating the time dimension. Agricultural carbon emissions changed from being led by an agricultural economic structure to an agricultural mechanization, then changed from being led by agricultural mechanization to being led by the agricultural development level. There were significant regional differences in agricultural carbon emissions dominant factors on the spatial dimension. The influence degree of agricultural economic development level and level of mechanization decreased from western to eastern China. The influence degree of agricultural structure decreased from eastern to central China. The influence degree of agricultural economies scale decreased from western to central China. This work provides a solid foundation for China to engage in a phased reduction and sub-regional reduction of agricultural carbon emissions, and comprehensive carbon reduction gargets.
As the largest producer of cement worldwide,China is also the biggest emitter of CO2 emissions. It has been widely recognized that CO2 emission factors affect and define regional CO2 emissions,capacity and scale. We therefore discuss regional spatial differences in CO2 emission factors in terms of the CO2 emission factor of the clinker process,CO2 emission factor of clinker fuel,CO2 emission factor of cement processes,CO2 emission factor of cement fuel and indirect CO2 emission factor in provinces based on sampling survey data. To identify differences,we produced five corresponding thematic maps to view the spatial distribution. Our results indicate that the spatial distribution characteristics of four preceding items are almost the same：the eastern coastal provinces are relatively low and central and west regions are higher. As for the indirect CO2 emission factor,it is mainly decided by the CO2 emission factor of the Chinese regional power grid;its distribution feature is ambiguous. We further explored sources of differences in CO2 emission factors among provinces. We argue differences in the CaO content of limestone and raw material additives affect the results. However,differences in the CaO content of limestone are critical. Differences in the CO2 emission factor of clinker fuel are because of the coal low calorific value. The lower average low calorific value,the less the CO2 emission factor of clinker fuel. In the cement grinding process,power consumption produces CO2 emissions. So the spatial variances of the CO2 emission factor of the cement process and fuel are highly related to the clinker-cement ratio. The spatial differences in indirect CO2 emission factor between the twenty provinces is small,and mainly decided by CO2 emission factor of Chinese regional power grids. Whether cement production lines own the waste heat power generation also reduces the indirect CO2 emission factor.
China’s increasing importance in the vertical specialization of East Asia has resulted in significant alteration to its economic structure and trade patterns,which has a non-negligible impact on embodied carbon emissions. Based on the price adjusted global input-output table （YNU-GIO）we constructed a Multi-Regional Input Output Model for the 10 East Asia member economies of China,Japan,Korea,Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore,Thailand,Taiwan Province of China and Vietnam,to undertake inter-temporal structure decomposition analysis of China’s export embodied carbon emissions within East Asia from 1997 to 2002,2002 to 2007 and 2007 to 2012. It is indicated that as the biggest victimized country,China’s speedy augmentation in embodied carbon emissions and trends tend to be strengthened in the near future due to integrating into vertical specialization in East Asia. Trade structural change effects and trade volume expansion effects contributed most to the hasty increase of China’s export embodied carbon dioxide. East Asia vertical specialization has the greatest impact on China's carbon emissions due to the regional spillover effect of embodied carbon emissions. However,embodied carbon reduced significantly due to the improvement in energy efficiency but this effect has narrowed during the post crisis period. China’s embodied carbon emissions synchronized with the East Asian region recently. The 2008 global financial crisis has structural impact on the East Asia vertical specialization system and hence resulted in a low-carbon trade pattern in the region. In order to better integrate into East Asia vertical specialization and avoid becoming the destination of international environmental dumping,measures should be taken for the Chinese government to monitor the export of energy intensive products and utilize the positive regional spillover effect to help China’s abatement actions.
The restoration and compensation of mangrove wetland is an important way to avoid service degradation. Based on the assumption that there is no loss of welfare,valuing residents’ marginal willingness to pay for each restoration attribute of mangrove wetland is an essential prerequisite to assess the scale of restoration and compensation. This strategy will also aid policymakers to identify the most important wetland attribute and formulate efficient restoration measures,significant for sustainable ecosystem services. To assess residents’ preference and willingness to pay for restoration of mangrove wetlands in Guangxi,we present a choice experiment with respondent-specific status quo alternatives. The restoration attributes are divided into four parts：mangrove area,landscape integrity,water quality and biodiversity. Each attribute has its own corresponding levels. The number of residents who are sampled at random in Beihai,Qinzhou,Fangchenggang is 297. Based on real survey data,the random parameter Logit model is used to quantify residents’ willingness to pay. The results demonstrate that the willingness of local residents to pay for improving water quality is 48.44 CNY per person per year,which is the highest among the four restoration attributes,followed by increasing mangrove area and biodiversity. In addition,to make the level of each mangrove attribute achieve the highest in history,residents whose specific status quo alternatives are all lowest want to pay 153.56 CNY per person per year for the restoration of wetlands. Heterogeneous and asymmetric preferences were detected. These findings will provide a reference for mangrove wetland scientific restoration scheme in China.
